May

LIFE IN OTHER PLACES

By Pam Eastlick

Last week we talked about life in some very strange places like in sinkholes at the bottom of lakes and in your own gut. But this week we’re going to talk about some even more exotic places. We’re going to move out into the solar system and examine the most likely places among our neighbors that may have life.

MARS

Back in January, I told you about the discovery of methane on Mars. Although it didn’t make a big splash in the news media (someone was inaugurated about the same time) it could conceivably be one of the biggest stories of the 21^st century because free methane is vanishingly rare. Because it only has one carbon atom, methane combines with virtually everything and as far as we know, it can be produced by only two processes.

It can be produced by volcanic activity. Although we don’t see all the ash, dust and gas produced in volcanic eruptions, it is possible that there are underground reservoirs of methane on Mars that were produced long ago. Methane from these ‘tanks’ may be slowly seeping to the surface and producing the small amounts of methane in Mars’ atmosphere.

But the more intriguing possibility is that the methane on Mars was produced by life. As I said in January’s article, you produce methane every day of your life. It’s a common by-product of the bacterial metabolic processes that digest your food for you. Cows produce methane, your dog produces methane, it’s produced in abundance by teen-aged boys who find it a great source of humor. Everything that eats produces methane as a result of that eating. Methane production, in short, is a sign of LIFE.

So is it volcanism or life that’s producing the methane on Mars? Whatever the answer is, I’ll never be able to tell my Astronomy students again that Mars is a “dead world”. We still have working rovers on the surface of Mars and the satellites that orbit Mars see much more of the surface of that planet than the satellites of Earth see of home. So with all those robots to send us information, maybe next week or next year we’ll get our answer to the methane mystery on Mars.

EUROPA/GANYMEDE

Besides carbon, the other requirement for life-as-we-know-it is liquid water. Those underground bacteria could easily have access to water on Mars in the form of ice, which their internal heat could melt or there could be liquid water below the ice, just as there is in Antarctica.

Liquid water is a comparative rarity in the solar system. There’s literally tons of water, but most of it is ice. Until very recently the only place we knew of with lots of liquid water is Earth. But those roaming robots have shown us that there are at least three other places out there that probably have more liquid water than Earth; much more.

One of them is Europa, the ice moon that circles Jupiter. When we sent robots to orbit Jupiter, we discovered that Europa wobbles as it orbits Jupiter. You can tell if an egg is hard-boiled by spinning it. A hard-boiled egg is a solid body inside and it spins just like a top. A raw egg has liquid inside it and that liquid has two different densities. A raw egg won’t spin for very long; the sloshing liquid inside brings it to a quick halt.

The fact that Europa wobbles implies that there’s liquid inside. Since the surface of Europa is frozen water ice, the implication is that the inside of Europa is filled with liquid water with a rock core at the center. Europa probably has a liquid water ocean that’s around 20 miles deep. Europa is about the size of our moon and may contain more liquid water than the seas of Earth.

But the big boy of the ‘water’ scenario is Jupiter’s moon Ganymede. Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system and it’s bigger than Mercury. Ganymede has its own magnetic field, which implies that it has an iron core like Earth and it also wobbles as it orbits Jupiter. If there is a liquid water ocean inside Ganymede, it could be as much as 300 MILES deep. Ganymede is probably the biggest reservoir of liquid water in the solar system.

But notice that we say ‘maybe’ and ‘probably’ and ‘could be’. We speculate about liquid water in the moons of Jupiter (and that also includes the last Galilean satellite, Callisto) but there is a moon in the solar system about which all speculation about a liquid ocean has ceased. And that’s Saturn’s moon, Enceladus.

ENCELADUS

We have a robot called Cassini in orbit around the planet Saturn and it’s discovered something very interesting about Enceladus, the brightest little moon in the solar system. We’ve known for a long time that its surface had to be made of something very reflective. The surface of Enceladus is solidly frozen water ice and it’s as reflective as new-fallen snow. And Enceladus also wobbles as it goes around Saturn.

Then Cassini found something really interesting. There were what the team called ‘tiger stripes’ at Cassini’s south pole. A closer look during one of Cassini’s scheduled fly-bys of Enceladus revealed these ‘tiger stripes’ were huge cracks in the ice.

Then they discovered something REALLY interesting. Liquid water is erupting from these cracks. We don’t have to infer from the wobble that Enceladus contains liquid water, we KNOW it does. And not only is it erupting liquid water, there are also organic chemicals in the water.

The ‘tiger stripes’ on Saturn’s ice moon Enceladus. (Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute)

Could microbial life exist inside Enceladus, where no sunlight reaches, photosynthesis is impossible and no oxygen is available? To answer that question, we need look no farther than our own planet to find examples of the types of exotic ecosystems that could make life possible on Saturn’s geyser moon. The answer appears to be, yes, it could be possible.

In recent years, we’ve found life on Earth that thrives in places where the sun doesn’t shine and there’s no oxygen because no photosynthesis takes place there. Microbes have been discovered that use the energy from chemical reactions between different kinds of minerals, and others that live off the energy from naturally-occurring radioactive decay.

There are at least three ecosystems found on Earth that harbor the kind of life that could survive in the sunless seas of Enceladus. Two are based on methanogens (hmmm, this is fancy Latin for ‘methane generator!), very primitive bacteria relatives that thrive in harsh environments without oxygen. Deep volcanic rocks along the Columbia River and in Idaho Falls host two of these ecosystems, which get their energy from chemical interactions. The third ecosystem is powered by the energy produced by natural radioactive decay, and was found deep below the surface in a mine in South Africa.

So the evidence points to the feasibility of life in Enceladus. But how would it get its start? A major problem in answering that question is that we don’t know how life originated on Earth, nor have we been able to reproduce Earth’s first spark of life in the laboratory. But here’s the good news: there are a lot of theories for how life originated on Earth. Now the question is — do they apply to Enceladus?

Two theories for the origin of life on Earth do seem to apply to Enceladus–the "primordial soup" theory and the “deep-sea vent” theory.

Primordial Soup Theory

Charles Darwin first proposed that life originated in a soup of organic material created from non-biological sources. The possibility that this is exactly what happened was demonstrated in a famous expe
riment in 1953 when the chemists Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey cooked up a primordial soup of chemicals thought to have been present on early Earth before life began. A spark, simulating lightning, was passed through this highly reduced mixture of methane, ammonia, water vapor and hydrogen. Within two weeks, a few amino acids, some of the building blocks of life, had formed in the soup. While Miller and Urey did not actually create life, they demonstrated that very complex molecules like amino-acids could spontaneously assemble from simpler chemicals.

(The actual ‘gunk’ created in the Miller-Urey experiments has been recently examined using new techniques. This also included an experiment Dr. Miller performed that introduced steam into the experiment. In his 1953 paper, Dr. Miller had reported that he had detected five amino acids produced by the original apparatus. The recent examination found small amounts of nine additional amino acids in those samples. In the residues from the apparatus with the steam injector, the scientists detected 22 amino acids, including 10 that had never before been identified from the Miller-Urey experiment.)

So where did this organic soup come from? Here on Earth, it’s possible that all the ingredients were already in place. Another theory is that the right soup mix ingredients arrived as incoming comet material and interplanetary dust.

Deep Sea Vent Theory

The deep-sea vent theory for the origin of life on Earth might apply to Enceladus as well. In this scenario, life on Earth began at the interface where chemically rich fluids, heated by tidal or other mechanisms, erupted from the sea floor into the existing ocean. Chemical energy is derived when reduced gases, like hydrogen-sulfide and hydrogen emerge from the vent and contact an oxidant, like carbon dioxide. Hot spots like this could also occur on the sea floor of Enceladus.

We don’t know how long it takes for life to start when the ingredients are there and the environment is suitable, but it appears to have happened quickly on Earth. It could have happened just as quickly on Enceladus.

For life to persist once it has been established requires an environment of liquid water, the essential elements and nutrients, and an energy source. Enceladus has liquid water and both simple and complex organic chemicals. Some kind of energy source is producing the erupting geysers. Hmmmm, liquid water, organic chemicals and an energy source.

As a scientist said who studies the moon Europa: “Do you really think you can have a liquid water ocean for five billion years and NOT have life in it?”

Are we alone? More and more evidence is giving us the answer “Probably not!”

About two miles below the ground in a South African gold mine, scientist Duane Moser stands next to the fracture zone (white area) where he and Li-Hung Lin found bacteria that live in an ecosystem driven by radioactive decay with no oxygen, no light and no organic input. (Credit: Photo by Li-Hung Lin. Image courtesy of NASA)

Cruise on over to the Deep Website at www.thedeepradioshow.com to learn more about life in other places and many other topics. Enjoy!

Jan

Looking for Life

By Pam Eastlick

THE STORY OF A SMELLY MOLECULE

A story surfaced last week that could be one of the most important stories of the century. It was overshadowed (and perhaps rightly so) by war and inaugurations and quickly disappeared, but for us science geeks, it caused heads to pop up and point into the wind. We were sniffing for the faint traces of methane. Why? Because methane has been discovered in the atmosphere of Mars. So, why is that news?

Methane (aka CH4) is a very simple gas with a distinctive odor that’s a common component of sewer gas (which gives you some idea that the odor probably does not recall your mind to roses). The C in the chemical formula tells you that it contains the element carbon and it is one of the ‘organic chemicals’.

Carbon loves to bind with other chemicals and methane which has only one carbon is inherently unstable. Methane gas quickly combines with almost any other compound it runs across and become something else.

Because of this rapid combing feature, free methane gas is rare or absent in any atmosphere. And here’s the really important part. As far as we know now (and that is a pretty big caveat), free methane gas can be produced by only two methods. The first is by geologic processes.

Volcanic seeps and eruptions can produce it. There are huge underground reservoirs of ‘natural gas’ on planet Earth. Natural gas consists of methane, ethane, pentane, hexane and many, many other ‘anes’ which are simply chains of carbon molecules with hydrogens stuck on. Atmospheric methane is easily detected around any sort of geologic activity.

Since the planet Mars is the proud possessor of the biggest volcano in the solar system (Olympus Mons: 13 MILES tall) it seems only logical that there would be an incredible amount of methane, sulfur, dust, rocks and all the other indications of volcanic eruptions. Not true, of course; Mars is a ‘dead’ world geologically.

We have orbiting robots around Mars just as we do around Earth. The Mars orbiters do have a unique advantage over their Earth counterparts; they can see the surface of the whole planet whilst the Earth robots can only see 30% of the land on Earth. The Mars robots haven’t seen any trace of volcanic activity. They’ve seen huge landslides and tiny dust devils and melting and thawing ice, but no volcanic activity. And active volcanoes are pretty hard to hide (except on Earth, where most of the planet’s active volcanoes are underwater).

Small gas seeps wouldn’t really be visible to the orbiting eyes and they are a possible source of the atmospheric methane that we’ve recently detected (which was detected, by the way, by telescopes located on top of Earth’s biggest volcano, the island of Hawaii). So the methane could be coming from geologic sources.

But there’s another source of atmosphere methane that’s even more intriguing. You produce methane every day of your life. It’s a common by-product of the bacterial metabolic processes that digest your food for you. Cows produce methane, your dog produces methane, it is produced in abundance by teen-aged boys who find it a great source of humor. Everything that eats produces methane as a result of that eating. Methane production, in short, is a sign of LIFE.

The methane in the atmosphere of Mars could mean, without question, that there’s some kind of life on a ‘dead and lifeless’ planet. There’s not much methane in Mars’ atmosphere, unlike Earth, where cows produce it by the metric ton. There’s not a whole lot of whatever is making it. Small gas seeps fit the bill as could subsurface bacteria that survive the intense Martian cold and thin atmosphere by living underground.

Kids who come to the Planetarium ask me all the time “Miss, is there life anywhere else in the solar system?” I used to tell them that there were only two places where life-as-we-know-it could survive. The atmosphere of Jupiter (still a viable option but there are no plans that I know of on the drawing board to go and check) and Europa, one of the moons of Jupiter. There is one other very viable candidate that I’ll talk about next; and now, I’ll be proud to add Mars.

If there is life on Mars, it’s probably not any more complicated than a bacterium, but those bacteria could tell us volumes of information about the origins of life on our own planet. Do the Martian bacteria have DNA? Are they just like our bacteria or radically different? Did Martian life take a space ride deep inside a rock blasted from the Martian surface by a meteor impact and wind up here on Earth? Are we all Martians? Science is full of surprises and all you have to do is wait for the answers.

WOBBLY MOONS

Besides carbon, the other requirement for life-as-we-know-it is liquid water. Those underground bacteria could easily have access to water on Mars in the form of ice which their internal heat could melt or there could be liquid water below the ice, just as there is in Antarctica.

Liquid water is a comparative rarity in the solar system. There’s literally tons of water, but most of it is ice. Until very recently the only place we knew of with lots of liquid water is Earth. But those roaming robots have shown us that there are at least two other places out there that probably have more liquid water than Earth, much more.

Today we can only hypothesize about the seas of Europa, but there is another moon that we know a little more about. We have a robot called Cassini in orbit around the planet Saturn and it’s discovered something very interesting about the brightest little moon in the solar system.

The moon’s name is Enceladus, and we’ve known for a long time that the surface had to be made of something very reflective. The surface of Enceladus is solidly frozen water ice and it’s as reflective as new-fallen snow. And Enceladus also wobbles as it goes around Saturn.

Then they discovered something REALLY interesting. Liquid water was erupting from these cracks. We don’t have to infer from the wobble that Enceladus contains liquid water, we KNOW it does.

According to a recent press release from the Cassini team:

New carefully targeted pictures reveal exquisite details in the prominent south polar "tiger stripe" fractures from which the jets emanate. The images show the fractures are about 300 meters (980 feet) deep, with V-shaped inner walls. The outer flanks of some of the fractures show extensive deposits of fine material. Finely fractured terrain littered with blocks of ice tens of meters in size and larger (the size of small houses) surround the fractures.

One highly anticipated result of this flyby was finding the location within the fractures from which the jets blast icy particles, water vapor and trace organics into space. Scientists are now studying the nature and intensity of this process on Enceladus, and its effects on surrounding terr
ain.

Did you notice something very interesting in that second paragraph? If you’re a science geek like me, one phrase stands out like it was in boldface type and red letters. The phrase is “trace organics”.